Table of Contents
Abstract
I. Introduction
II. Ancient History: 1100's-1700
III. More recent History: 1700-1969
IV. Re-Occupation by the British Troops: 1969
V. Question: Where does Northern Ireland go from here ?
VI. Suggestion
VII. Conclusions
VIII. Visuals:
Figure 1: Map of Ireland showing the dividing line between North & South
Figure 2: Irish Republican Army Recruiting Poster
Figure 3: Number of killings in Northern Ireland from 1969-1980
XV. Works cited page
I. Introduction. (topic statement)
II. Ancient History
A. 1100's - why the English first came
B. 1200's - 1600's
C. 1600's - 1700
III. More Recent History
A. 1700 - 1850
B. 1850 - 1900
C. 1900 - 1969 (when the British Troops came back)
IV. Present day events
A. Re-Occupation of the British Troops (1969)
B. Opposing groups
1. Catholic groups
2. Protestant groups
C. 1970's
D. 1980's
E. 1990's
V. Question - Where does Northern Ireland go from here ?
A. Outlooks towards peace
B. Problems that need to be resolved
C. Attitudes from different groups of people
VI. Suggestions
VII. Conclusion - closing statement
Abstract
Ireland since the 1100's has been in conflict with England. Usually over a period of time problems begin to be resolved, but in this case the conflict has not. For over 800 years the
conflict between Ireland and England has not only gotten more serious but it has involved the Irish protestants fighting among the Irish catholics. Since 1969, the presence of the
English troops has forced the Irish people to use weapons in order to obtain their freedom and Independence from England. There are many ways of going around this problem but
in Ireland a "SHOOT to KILL" policy has been implemented. Present day history has been revolving around peace talks among Northern Ireland and England. Armed groups in
Northern Ireland have agreed on a cease-fire until peace talks can be decided upon.
Introduction
Northern Ireland is the smallest of the four countries that make up the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (see Figure 1), often shortened to Great Britain or the
United Kingdom. The other countries are England, Scotland, and Wales. Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland and also the largest city. The majority of the people who live in
Northern Ireland are of English or Scottish decent. Also most of them are protestants and observe many English traditions and customs. The others are Roman Catholics of Irish
decent. There is conflict among the different groups in Northern Ireland. There are many reasons for the conflict, dating back to the 1100's. Instead of the problems being resolved
over 800 years of history, they have only gotten worse. Today's leaders are working hard on future outlooks between the different groups in Northern Ireland. The fighting in Northern
Ireland is serious and many compromises need to be resolved before they consider future peace.
Ancient History: 1100's - 1700
In the 1100's, the King of Leinster in the Irish Southeast was overthrown by the High King. The King of Leinster asked Henry II for assistance in regaining his kingdom. Henry gave
the king permission to recruit Norman soldiers, and promised that they would get some Irish land in return. In 1171 when the King of Leinster died, a Norman baron name
Strongbow took the privilege in declaring himself King of Leinster. When the other normans seized Irish land, to make sure that they stayed loyal to him, Henry II traveled to Ireland in
1171 and made everyone see him as the Lord of Ireland. The Normans had nearly seized all of Ireland by the 1300's. As time passed the loyalty the Normans had towards England
weakened as they mixed in and married the Irish and also adopted their language. By the early 1400's England actually owned only a small area around Dublin called the Pale.
Henry VIII in 1534, tried to regain England's power in Ireland. In order to do this he had to take all the power away from the Earls of Kildare, who were the Norman noblemen who had
long controlled the English interests in Ireland. Henry also forced the Irish parliament to recognize him as the King of Ireland, he established English laws in Ireland and tried to
convert the Irish into protestants, but he had little success ("Ireland" World Book 426).
In 1541 King Henry VIII of England had declared himself King of Ireland which caused a process known as The Reformation. This was the change that made England a
protestant nation from a Roman Catholic nation ("Northern" World Book 529). This change had little effect on Ireland because it still remained mostly Roman Catholic. Queen Mary I,
daughter of Henry VIII continued her father's policies, she tried to make the English rule stronger by establishing the Plantation of Ireland. With this rule land was seized in two
counties in central Ireland and redistributed to English settlers. Roman Catholic services were prohibited and bishops and priests were executed ("Ireland" World Book 426). This
caused a lot of tension and anger among the Irish Catholics who were becoming more united and were building up Anti-English attitudes. By trying to force people into
protestantism, it only made the people turn more against the English.
In the late 1500's, an Irish Chieftain named Shane O' Neil led a number of revolts, which were carried out in Ulster, a large province in Northern Ireland ("Ireland" World Book 426).
Later as the 1600's rolled in, James I tried to stop more revolts by continuing the Plantation of Ireland. Land was seized in Ulster and given to English and Scottish protestants
("Ireland" World Book 426). In 1602 local chieftains who opposed the English left Ulster. King James who followed Queen Elizabeth then gave the land deserted by the chieftains to
English and Scottish protestants. (this was partly responsible for so many protestants being in governing power in Ulster) ("Northern" World Book 529). Roman Catholics throughout
Ireland were fearing that they would lose their land. In order to overcome this fear, the Irish began a revolt against England. The revolt was finally stopped in 1649 by the Puritan ruler
of England Oliver Cromwell. In the mid 1600's, an attempt was made by the Irish people to re-establish Catholic power in Ulster. James II, a catholic, who was the King of England
from 1685-1688, was defeated by William of Orange, in the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. William of Orange became King William III, a protestant ruler. Following the great defeat of
James II in the Battle of the Boyne, protestants gained most of the land in Ireland (Catholics only had 14 percent of the land on the island), and restricted the rights of catholics as
well as presbyterian protestants ("Northern" World Book 529).
The Dublin parliament began to legislate society into two separate and unequal parts, through the Penal Laws. These laws were to create a system in which Anglicans would be
guaranteed special privileges while catholics would be discriminated against. The most important penal law was the one which abolished the principle of primogeniture for
catholics. Land could no longer be given to the first born son. Under the new rule the land would be given to the first if he converted to protestantism, otherwise the land
would be divided equally among all sons. This was intended to reduce the catholics from owning land. On the political side of the penal laws, catholics were not allowed to teach in
schools, hold seats in the colonial assembly, vote in elections, obtain public employment, practice their religion. To make sure that this would be taken seriously another of the
penal laws made it a crime for a catholic to possess or own a firearm ("Kelley" 7).
The British had kept tight control over Ireland during the 1700's, and also limited the Irish parliament's powers. Many Irish-protestants had objected to these restrictions. More land
that the catholics owned had been disappearing into England's hands. By 1704, catholics in Ireland only held about a seventh of the land. They could not gain land because they
were prohibited from having land handed down to them, bought by them or rented by them ("Ireland" World Book 426).
More Recent History: 1700's - 1969
Conditions around 1760 had already gotten so bad that bands of peasants began launching attacks in several areas, landlords were abducted, tortured and sometimes murdered.
Cattle belonging to rich ranchers were maimed by the attackers. Some 75,000 volunteers, almost all protestant, had been rasied throughout Ireland in 1778 with the aim of
safeguarding the colony while the British army was tied down in a war against the American Colonies. The volunteers were not a dependable group because they soon sensed their
power and placed it at the service of Grattan's parliament. In 1780, Henry Grattan, a protestant lawyer, who headed a group within the Dublin parliament, had suggested that perhaps
Westminster had no real right to legislate for Ireland. Grattan was in a position to say such a thing because he was backed up on the streets by an armed body of men ("Kelley" 8).
From 1782-1800 the Irish protestant-controlled parliament ruled the country, they abolished all the restrictions that were placed on the catholics not to hold land, and also
abolished the restrictions on their religious rights ("Ireland" World Book 426). In 1785, fighting broke out over the land rights in Ulster. The defenders (catholics) were trying to defend
themselves against the protestant English groups. Theobald Wolfe Tone, a protestant lawyer, believed that by joining together catholics and protestants they would have a better
chance of gaining independence from England. He established the Society of United Irishmen in 1791. The purposes of this organization was to continue reforms in Ireland and
gain complete independence from England. The Society of United Irishmen was made up of catholics and protestants.
Some of the protestants did not want catholics to gain more rights. This resulted in a battle in 1795 in Diamond, a village in Country Antrim, Northern Ireland. The battle of Diamond
led to the protestants forming the Orange Order, an organization dedicated at driving a wedge between catholics and presbyterians. Presbyterians had often taken the side of the
catholics to go against protestants. Even though there were some differences among smaller groups the Society of United Irishmen continued their work toward breaking away from
England. To try to enlist military support for a rising, in 1798 Irish emissaries traveled to Paris. The results of going to Paris led to "promises being made and plans being drawn up
("Kelley" 11).
The United Irishmen staged in 1798 an unsuccessful rebellion. When the time came for the rising, french troops however had not arrived in sufficient numbers because of
miscalculations, broken promises and English harassments. The rising proceeded anyway with thousands of brave peasants and republicans being crushed to death.
Approximately 50,000 Irish people were killed in the actual fighting or in the reprisals which followed. Wolfe Tone had been captured and was sentenced to hang as a traitor.
Following the rebellion the British prime minster encouraged British and Irish parliaments to pass the Act of Union, which went into effect in 1801. This act made Ireland officially part
of the United Kingdom of Great Britain ("Ireland" World Book 426). The 500 year old Dublin parliament was abolished: Ireland was directly bound to Great Britain in a United Kingdom
("Kelley" 11).
The Irish Independence supporters throughout the United States were known as Fenians. Fenian is the gaelic word for a soldier or warrior. This Fenian society was little more than
a cover for a secret armed organization known as the I.R.B (Irish Republican Brotherhood). The I.R.B. was an organization dedicated to preparing for an armed revolt in Ireland. A lot
of the United States based Fenians meanwhile obtained military training during the North-South Civil War, and they returned home to Ireland in 1865 ready to fight the English
("Kelley" 19). In the early 1880's, rural Ireland and it's legislative representatives started to press a demand for Home Rule. The home rule campaign called for re-establishment of
the Irish colonial parliament in Dublin which had been abolished by the act of union in 1800. Severance of ties to Britain was not an aim of the home rulers who were content at this
stage to request a portion of control over Ireland's affairs ("Kelley" 22).
In 1881 the British attempted to reduce the league and to curtail the reform process. Once again rural attacks increased. Members of the secret revolutionary society called the
"Invincibles", which was an offshoot of the I.R.B, assassinated two British colonial officials in a Dublin park ("Kelley" 21). In the 1885 Westminster elections, home rulers captured
85 of 103 Irish seats ("Kelley" 22). The British Liberal Party proposed a plan in 1886 for Ireland called Home Rule. This plan said that all of Ireland would have remained part of Great
Britain, but would have it's own parliament for domestic affairs. Protestants in Ulster feared that Ireland would have a catholic parliament. The plan was defeated in parliament by
British conservatives and by the liberals who were against there own party ("Northern" World Book 529).
During World War I, many Irish people had joined the British army to fight against Germany, but others had gone to join the Irish volunteers. This group was the military wing of the
political party Sinn Fein, which was established in 1904 ("Ireland" World Book 77). Most catholics were in favor of complete independence from Britain by the early 1900's. The British
parliament passed a home rule bill over Ulster opposition in 1914, but the outbreak of World War I (1914-1918) prevented the bill from going into effect ("Ireland" World Book 529,
530). On Easter morning, April 24th, 1916, Padraig Pearse led an uprising in Dublin. The revolt became known as the Easter Rising. Pearse's view was that Irishmen should not be
helping England fight a war that had nothing to do with Ireland, they instead should be fighting against England to gain independence. About 1,300 rebels were killed during
England's military response to this revolt ("Kelley" 21, 32). Ireland was declared an independent country in 1919 when 73 Irish members of the British parliament met in Dublin.
Following this meeting guerrilla warfare came back to shape between the Irish Rebels and the British forces. So in 1920 the British parliament passed an act that separated Ireland
into two different countries and gave each some powers of self government. This act was known as the Act of Government. Ulster protestants accepted this act and the state of
Northern Ireland was formed from six counties in Ulster. Catholics from Southern Ireland rejected this act and demanded complete independence and a United Ireland ("Ireland"
World Book 530). In 1921 a treaty between leaders from Southern Ireland and England created the Irish Free State.
The Irish Republican Army (IRA) formed in 1919. The IRA is a secret military organization whose goal is to seek and unite the Independent Republic of Ireland with Northern Ireland,
which is part of Great Britain. The IRA was formed as part of a movement to gain Independence for Ireland. The IRA began guerilla warfare for Independence in 1919 also. Southern
Ireland leaders and Britain had signed a treaty in 1921, this treaty created the Irish Free State from 23 southern counties and 3 counties of Ulster ("Northern" World Book 530). This
treaty stated that Ireland would be a self-governing country owning allegiance to the British Crown. This brought about the Irish Free State. The treaty led an effect on the IRA, it split
the IRA into two groups, one led by Michael Collins, who accepted the treaty and became part of the army of the Irish Free State. The other group led by Eamon De Valera, rejected
the treaty because it did not give complete independence from Britain and union with Northern Ireland ("Ireland" World Book 433). The division of Ireland was later opposed by the
Irish Free State. So in 1921, armed groups crossed into Northern Ireland and attacked British government installations. Many frequent attacks were carried out by the IRA during the
1920's, during World War II (1939-1945) and between 1956-1962. Breaking out in 1922 was a civil war, the irregulars were defeated, in 1923. The irregulars were known as Eamon
De Valera's group who broke away from Michael Collin's group after the Anglo-Irish Treaty was agreed to. Although the irregulars were defeated they did not give up, they continued
as an under-ground organization.
The Irish free state was declared independent from England in 1949, this was a major accomplishment of the IRA, but they had still to free Northern Ireland. From 1956-1962 the
Irish Republican Army had continually raided British checkpoints in Northern Ireland trying to reunite Ireland and Northern Ireland and also trying to embarrass the Irish government
("Ireland" World Book 433).
Re-Occupation by the British Troops: 1969
Catholics in Northern Ireland have long complained that protestants violated their civil rights and discriminated against them in the job markets, housing, and other areas. In 1967,
the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association was established to work for equal rights for all Irishmen ("Northern" World Book 530). A march for the civil rights association took place
in Derry on the 5th of october, 1969 to demonstrate it's power and to demand reforms. Bloody riots broke out when the government attempted to stop the march. Following the riots,
the Northern Ireland prime minster was persuaded to establish a number of reforms. More riots broke out in Belfast and other towns such as Newry. British troops were sent to
Northern Ireland as a result of these riots. The troops remained in Northern Ireland but could not stop the riots from breaking out during the 1970's. Due to the IRA and other military
groups carrying out bombings and other dangerous operations the British police were rearmed. In 1972 the violence led to Britain taking over the Direct Rule of Northern Ireland.
Efforts to find a system that would be acceptable to both protestants and catholics have continued since the 1970's, but have not been successful ("Northern" World Book 530).
Many groups had been formed throughout the number of years of conflict in Northern Ireland, the different groups usually consisted of all catholics, all protestants or in some cases
groups were mixed, but not very often was this the case. One group was known as the Apprentice Boys, a militant protestant group that barred the Derry gates to approaching
catholic armies of catholic King James in 1689 ("Kelley" IX). As a result of the attacks on the British police force, a group called the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) was formed and
were given heavy arms. An all protestant volunteer force called the Ulster Special Constabulary assisted the police in their operations ("Northern" World Book 530). The Special Air
Services (SAS), was an undercover unit of the British army that has fought in almost all of Britain's colonial wars since WWII. This group has also been active in Northern Ireland
since 1975 ("Kelley" XIII). The Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) was a branch of the British army which operates a locally rasied militia in Northern Ireland. this group was all
protestant and consisted of both full time and part time members. The Ulster Defence Association (UDA) was also an all protestant group which has run electoral campaigns in
support of an independent six county Ulster as part of an effort to moderate it's image ("Kelley" XIII).
There are six men who are leaders of the UDA, and they are referred to as the brigadiers. Each brigadier controls areas that mark rough boundaries of the original loyalist
organizations that came together to form the UDA in 1971 ("Cusack" 19). The Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) was originally the armed organization founded by Edward Carson who
opposed home rule and then to defend partition. A group that took this name had emerged in the mid 1960's to kill catholics at random. This became a full-fledged loyalist death
squad in the 1972-1973 time frame ("Kelley" XIV). The groups that were just previously mentioned were some of the protestant groups, now from the other side we also had catholic
organizations. The Fenian Brotherhood was a Revolutionary Republican group that lauched a rising in 1867. It was more or less the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB), which
survived underground and re-emerged in the 20th century as a group plotting the Easter Rising ("Kelley" X). Sinn Fein was a political group founded in 1905 by Arthur Griffith. It was
not quite functional at the time of the Easter Rising in 1916 ("Kelley" XIII). Oglaigh na hEIREANN was the underground guerrilla movement that has fought for a 32 county Irish
Republic since 1919. This group is also known as the IRA. It is the armed wing of Sinn Fein. Cumman na mBAN is the female branch of the IRA, this group carried out basically the
same operations as the Official IRA did ("Kelley" X). Fianna Fail was the dominant political party located in the South of Ireland from 1932 until at least 1973, this group formed by
Eamon De Valera after a split with Sinn Fein/IRA in 1926 ("Kelley" X).
During the time of 1969-75 a new force came about called the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA), this group was mainly the military wing of the Irish Republican Socialist Party,
(IRSP). This is officially a break away group from the political party Sinn Fein ("Chartres" 81). In Ireland it was getting difficult for the Irish people to remain absorbed in it's own
unresolved problems. Both Unionists (UVF) and home rulers had been trained and armed to fight a war ("Kelley" 29). Edward Carson, a protestant lawyer from Dublin was a leader
of the Ulster Volunteer Force. He really could do nothing except encourage his followers to sacrifice themselves on Britain's behalf ("Kelley" 30). During the winter of 1969-1970
Republicans felt that something must be done about the situation in which British soldiers were being welcomed into catholic communities in Northern Ireland.
Republicans were really angry when they heard that buns and tea were given to British soldiers on the door steps of protestant homes. The Provisional IRA carried out a
propaganda campaign (see Figure 2). They did not enjoy what had been standing in their way for quite some time now, which were the lethal weapons of the British army. There
were about 20,000 British soldiers in the province, which was enough to provide human errors being carried out. These human errors consisted of the kicking down of doors of
innocent catholic familes, beating them in the streets and harrassing people.
By the early 1970's the IRA had won it's propaganda battle and having been too late the British army tried to react to it, sometimes in quite the wrong way. On august 21st of 1970,
a new and most important political organization was formed.
This organization was known as the Social Democratic and Labor Party (SDLP). The supporters of the old nationalist party were the supporters of this new party ("Chartres" 33). The
first serious gun fights occurred in June 1970 in Belfast, Northern Ireland. They were identified as IRA units and some militant armed protestants. In the late summer of 1970's both
British army and police patrols came under fire from crude weapons known as nail bombs ("Chartres" 34). "The Provisional IRA showed it's teeth with 29 explosions, mainly directed
against such targets like police stations, prison gates, post offices and British owned airline offices." ("Chartres" 34). The years of 1970, 1971, and 1972 were years in which the
British regular army, the RUC and to an increasing extent the UDR family became locked into a battle with the IRA ("Chartres" 32). The consolidation of violence can also be labelled
a period of time in which the Irish Republican Movement struck hardest (see Figure 3). The Provisional IRA, had recruited too many people who actually enjoyed killing, wounding
and torturing British people. In march 1972, Britain suspended the Northern Ireland government and established direct rule. Britain also appointed secretary of state to take over the
executive power. Direct rule ended in january 1st, 1974 when a new government made up of 78 members called the Northern Ireland assembly and a 15 member executive council
took control ("Northern" World Book 526). The year of 1972 opened up with the horrific episode of "Bloody Sunday", which took place in Derry, Northern Ireland. On this date 13
civilians were shot dead by British troops, as suspected terrorists, even though there was no proof of their guilt of innocence.
Following Bloody Sunday the cities that were divided, Derry and Belfast, became even more divided. The battle lines between the protestants and the catholics became even more
visible. Bloody Sunday was a horrible episode but in Northern Ireland it was not enough because next came Bloody Friday, this was the same year as Bloody Sunday. This
consisted of 22 bombs being exploded. Nine people were killed and nearly 150 were injured ("Chartres" 35). The five year period from 1973-1978 was very violent. It
was a period in which many political solutions were sought, but none were found ("Chartres" 61). It was also a period in which many people lost their lives. From 1978 up to 1986
may be recognized as one in which acceptable levels of violence was at least achieved, and accepted. The British regular army was able to reduce it's force levels, making more use
of semi-permanently based units which are on two and a half year terms accompanied by families ("Chartres" 81).
In 1982 Britain adopted the Northern Ireland bill trying to reinstate local control but it was dissolved again in 1986 because of disagreements between protestants and catholics
("Northern" World Book 526). Catholics and protestants are now getting to the point where everyone is fed up with the violence going on in their communities and constant presence
and interference of the british troops..
Question: Where does Northern Ireland go from here ?
So the citizens of both catholic and protestant communities are looking for ways toward a compromise ("Stacks" 51). Evidence of the IRA's change of attitude from armed combat to
negotiation is that Sinn Fein has been going to pubs to explain to citizens the need for working out some sort of peace agreement ("Stacks" 50).
The two Irish nationalists, Gerry Adams and John Hume believe that Ireland should be a state on it's own but differ bitterly over whether violence is a legitimate way of making the
country whole. The talks involve questions about what would happen if the IRA were to re-announce attacks, that they could find a way for the future of Ireland that nationalists,
unionists, and the British and Irish governments might accept ("Kee" 18). Reinforced history over the past 25 years demonstrates that as far as the protestant
unionists of Ulster are concerned, a United Republican Ireland can never be accepted ("Kee" 18).
England and the Republic of Ireland have both renounced claims to Ulster in order that the citizens of Ulster can create some form of self-government ("Stacks" 50). England
wants to resolve the conflict in Northern Ireland because of the excessive cost is has to give out each year. The British government estmates that it spends 4.5 billion a year for the
military and economic aid to Northern Ireland. Public support for the IRA has declined both in Ireland and the United States because of the disgust of the senseless killings. The US
government estimates that money coming from the United States to support the IRA activities have dropped to about 200,000 a year from millions a few tears ago ("Stacks" 50). The
people who have committed their lives to violence may not be ready to accept a compromise which could have an effect on the negotiations ("Stacks" 51).
The most hopeful event in Ireland for the past 25 years has been the recent talks between the Irish Nationalists who despise IRA violence and the other Nationalists who support it
("Kee" 18). The militant loyalism in Northern Ireland had grown in a response to what is being seen as a major threat to the union: the possibility of a new Anglo-Irish agreement that,
protestant loyalists believe, would undermine the position of Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom or dispose of it altogether ("Cusack" 19).
Suggestions
The conflict in Northern Ireland had many bad times since everything started in the 1100's. It has taken the leaders of both the Irish side and the British side until today to understand
that violence is not the way to accomplish peace in Northern Ireland. Now that time has passed and leaders are finally talking peace, they should be given the support of the country
so that people in Northern Ireland can obtain peace and continue with their lives. There are ways to accomplish peace:
1. Eliminate the violence
2. Conduct peace talks
3. Accept the resolutions made by arbitrators
Conclusions
In Northern Ireland the conflict has been looked upon as the "never ending war". It is so difficult to understand war and also difficult to understand that no one could talk about this
war fluently unless they were there and had experienced some of the events thats took place in the Irish peoples everyday life. Outlooks for the future have never been brighter and
have been looked upon, but decisions have not been made. Peace in Northern Ireland would allow the people in it's communities to settle down and forget
about all the violence that happened in the past and continue with their lives without war.
That concludes the main part of the paper. I hope you enjoyed it and most importantly learned something about the Conflict in Ireland. This paper was written from a neutral position,
I tried not to let my personal beliefs affect how I wrote and I tried to see it from both sides of the fence.
Thanks for taking the time to read it. Your feed back on this is greatly appreciated, please click on the link below and email me your comments.
EMAIL COMMENTS
To this very day Northern Ireland remains part of Great Britain, and the Republic of Ireland remains free of British Rule.
Works Cited
Chartres, John, Bert Henshaw, and Michael Dewar. Northern Ireland Scrapbook.
London: Arms and Armour Press, 1986.
Cusack, Jim. "Protestant Militants Re-Arm." Irish Times, Dublin, reprinted in World
Press Review, January 1994, page 19.
"Ireland." World Book Encyclopedia. Volume 10. World Book Inc. 1990. pp 426, 433.
Kee, Robert. "An Independent But Irish North." The Times, London, reprinted in World Press Review, Janurary 1994, pp 18-19.
Keith, Jeffrery. "War In Peace."" Volume 11. Marshall Cavendish. 1987. pp 1615, 2050.
Kelley, Kevin. The Longest War, Northern Ireland and the IRA. Westport, CT:
Lawrence Hill & Co. 1982.
"Northern Ireland. "The World Book Encyclopedia." Volume 14. World Book Inc. 1993. pp 525-526, 529-530.
Stacks, John. F. "Hope amid the Rubble." Time. September, 1994.
Abstract
I. Introduction
II. Ancient History: 1100's-1700
III. More recent History: 1700-1969
IV. Re-Occupation by the British Troops: 1969
V. Question: Where does Northern Ireland go from here ?
VI. Suggestion
VII. Conclusions
VIII. Visuals:
Figure 1: Map of Ireland showing the dividing line between North & South
Figure 2: Irish Republican Army Recruiting Poster
Figure 3: Number of killings in Northern Ireland from 1969-1980
XV. Works cited page
I. Introduction. (topic statement)
II. Ancient History
A. 1100's - why the English first came
B. 1200's - 1600's
C. 1600's - 1700
III. More Recent History
A. 1700 - 1850
B. 1850 - 1900
C. 1900 - 1969 (when the British Troops came back)
IV. Present day events
A. Re-Occupation of the British Troops (1969)
B. Opposing groups
1. Catholic groups
2. Protestant groups
C. 1970's
D. 1980's
E. 1990's
V. Question - Where does Northern Ireland go from here ?
A. Outlooks towards peace
B. Problems that need to be resolved
C. Attitudes from different groups of people
VI. Suggestions
VII. Conclusion - closing statement
Abstract
Ireland since the 1100's has been in conflict with England. Usually over a period of time problems begin to be resolved, but in this case the conflict has not. For over 800 years the
conflict between Ireland and England has not only gotten more serious but it has involved the Irish protestants fighting among the Irish catholics. Since 1969, the presence of the
English troops has forced the Irish people to use weapons in order to obtain their freedom and Independence from England. There are many ways of going around this problem but
in Ireland a "SHOOT to KILL" policy has been implemented. Present day history has been revolving around peace talks among Northern Ireland and England. Armed groups in
Northern Ireland have agreed on a cease-fire until peace talks can be decided upon.
Introduction
Northern Ireland is the smallest of the four countries that make up the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (see Figure 1), often shortened to Great Britain or the
United Kingdom. The other countries are England, Scotland, and Wales. Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland and also the largest city. The majority of the people who live in
Northern Ireland are of English or Scottish decent. Also most of them are protestants and observe many English traditions and customs. The others are Roman Catholics of Irish
decent. There is conflict among the different groups in Northern Ireland. There are many reasons for the conflict, dating back to the 1100's. Instead of the problems being resolved
over 800 years of history, they have only gotten worse. Today's leaders are working hard on future outlooks between the different groups in Northern Ireland. The fighting in Northern
Ireland is serious and many compromises need to be resolved before they consider future peace.
Ancient History: 1100's - 1700
In the 1100's, the King of Leinster in the Irish Southeast was overthrown by the High King. The King of Leinster asked Henry II for assistance in regaining his kingdom. Henry gave
the king permission to recruit Norman soldiers, and promised that they would get some Irish land in return. In 1171 when the King of Leinster died, a Norman baron name
Strongbow took the privilege in declaring himself King of Leinster. When the other normans seized Irish land, to make sure that they stayed loyal to him, Henry II traveled to Ireland in
1171 and made everyone see him as the Lord of Ireland. The Normans had nearly seized all of Ireland by the 1300's. As time passed the loyalty the Normans had towards England
weakened as they mixed in and married the Irish and also adopted their language. By the early 1400's England actually owned only a small area around Dublin called the Pale.
Henry VIII in 1534, tried to regain England's power in Ireland. In order to do this he had to take all the power away from the Earls of Kildare, who were the Norman noblemen who had
long controlled the English interests in Ireland. Henry also forced the Irish parliament to recognize him as the King of Ireland, he established English laws in Ireland and tried to
convert the Irish into protestants, but he had little success ("Ireland" World Book 426).
In 1541 King Henry VIII of England had declared himself King of Ireland which caused a process known as The Reformation. This was the change that made England a
protestant nation from a Roman Catholic nation ("Northern" World Book 529). This change had little effect on Ireland because it still remained mostly Roman Catholic. Queen Mary I,
daughter of Henry VIII continued her father's policies, she tried to make the English rule stronger by establishing the Plantation of Ireland. With this rule land was seized in two
counties in central Ireland and redistributed to English settlers. Roman Catholic services were prohibited and bishops and priests were executed ("Ireland" World Book 426). This
caused a lot of tension and anger among the Irish Catholics who were becoming more united and were building up Anti-English attitudes. By trying to force people into
protestantism, it only made the people turn more against the English.
In the late 1500's, an Irish Chieftain named Shane O' Neil led a number of revolts, which were carried out in Ulster, a large province in Northern Ireland ("Ireland" World Book 426).
Later as the 1600's rolled in, James I tried to stop more revolts by continuing the Plantation of Ireland. Land was seized in Ulster and given to English and Scottish protestants
("Ireland" World Book 426). In 1602 local chieftains who opposed the English left Ulster. King James who followed Queen Elizabeth then gave the land deserted by the chieftains to
English and Scottish protestants. (this was partly responsible for so many protestants being in governing power in Ulster) ("Northern" World Book 529). Roman Catholics throughout
Ireland were fearing that they would lose their land. In order to overcome this fear, the Irish began a revolt against England. The revolt was finally stopped in 1649 by the Puritan ruler
of England Oliver Cromwell. In the mid 1600's, an attempt was made by the Irish people to re-establish Catholic power in Ulster. James II, a catholic, who was the King of England
from 1685-1688, was defeated by William of Orange, in the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. William of Orange became King William III, a protestant ruler. Following the great defeat of
James II in the Battle of the Boyne, protestants gained most of the land in Ireland (Catholics only had 14 percent of the land on the island), and restricted the rights of catholics as
well as presbyterian protestants ("Northern" World Book 529).
The Dublin parliament began to legislate society into two separate and unequal parts, through the Penal Laws. These laws were to create a system in which Anglicans would be
guaranteed special privileges while catholics would be discriminated against. The most important penal law was the one which abolished the principle of primogeniture for
catholics. Land could no longer be given to the first born son. Under the new rule the land would be given to the first if he converted to protestantism, otherwise the land
would be divided equally among all sons. This was intended to reduce the catholics from owning land. On the political side of the penal laws, catholics were not allowed to teach in
schools, hold seats in the colonial assembly, vote in elections, obtain public employment, practice their religion. To make sure that this would be taken seriously another of the
penal laws made it a crime for a catholic to possess or own a firearm ("Kelley" 7).
The British had kept tight control over Ireland during the 1700's, and also limited the Irish parliament's powers. Many Irish-protestants had objected to these restrictions. More land
that the catholics owned had been disappearing into England's hands. By 1704, catholics in Ireland only held about a seventh of the land. They could not gain land because they
were prohibited from having land handed down to them, bought by them or rented by them ("Ireland" World Book 426).
More Recent History: 1700's - 1969
Conditions around 1760 had already gotten so bad that bands of peasants began launching attacks in several areas, landlords were abducted, tortured and sometimes murdered.
Cattle belonging to rich ranchers were maimed by the attackers. Some 75,000 volunteers, almost all protestant, had been rasied throughout Ireland in 1778 with the aim of
safeguarding the colony while the British army was tied down in a war against the American Colonies. The volunteers were not a dependable group because they soon sensed their
power and placed it at the service of Grattan's parliament. In 1780, Henry Grattan, a protestant lawyer, who headed a group within the Dublin parliament, had suggested that perhaps
Westminster had no real right to legislate for Ireland. Grattan was in a position to say such a thing because he was backed up on the streets by an armed body of men ("Kelley" 8).
From 1782-1800 the Irish protestant-controlled parliament ruled the country, they abolished all the restrictions that were placed on the catholics not to hold land, and also
abolished the restrictions on their religious rights ("Ireland" World Book 426). In 1785, fighting broke out over the land rights in Ulster. The defenders (catholics) were trying to defend
themselves against the protestant English groups. Theobald Wolfe Tone, a protestant lawyer, believed that by joining together catholics and protestants they would have a better
chance of gaining independence from England. He established the Society of United Irishmen in 1791. The purposes of this organization was to continue reforms in Ireland and
gain complete independence from England. The Society of United Irishmen was made up of catholics and protestants.
Some of the protestants did not want catholics to gain more rights. This resulted in a battle in 1795 in Diamond, a village in Country Antrim, Northern Ireland. The battle of Diamond
led to the protestants forming the Orange Order, an organization dedicated at driving a wedge between catholics and presbyterians. Presbyterians had often taken the side of the
catholics to go against protestants. Even though there were some differences among smaller groups the Society of United Irishmen continued their work toward breaking away from
England. To try to enlist military support for a rising, in 1798 Irish emissaries traveled to Paris. The results of going to Paris led to "promises being made and plans being drawn up
("Kelley" 11).
The United Irishmen staged in 1798 an unsuccessful rebellion. When the time came for the rising, french troops however had not arrived in sufficient numbers because of
miscalculations, broken promises and English harassments. The rising proceeded anyway with thousands of brave peasants and republicans being crushed to death.
Approximately 50,000 Irish people were killed in the actual fighting or in the reprisals which followed. Wolfe Tone had been captured and was sentenced to hang as a traitor.
Following the rebellion the British prime minster encouraged British and Irish parliaments to pass the Act of Union, which went into effect in 1801. This act made Ireland officially part
of the United Kingdom of Great Britain ("Ireland" World Book 426). The 500 year old Dublin parliament was abolished: Ireland was directly bound to Great Britain in a United Kingdom
("Kelley" 11).
The Irish Independence supporters throughout the United States were known as Fenians. Fenian is the gaelic word for a soldier or warrior. This Fenian society was little more than
a cover for a secret armed organization known as the I.R.B (Irish Republican Brotherhood). The I.R.B. was an organization dedicated to preparing for an armed revolt in Ireland. A lot
of the United States based Fenians meanwhile obtained military training during the North-South Civil War, and they returned home to Ireland in 1865 ready to fight the English
("Kelley" 19). In the early 1880's, rural Ireland and it's legislative representatives started to press a demand for Home Rule. The home rule campaign called for re-establishment of
the Irish colonial parliament in Dublin which had been abolished by the act of union in 1800. Severance of ties to Britain was not an aim of the home rulers who were content at this
stage to request a portion of control over Ireland's affairs ("Kelley" 22).
In 1881 the British attempted to reduce the league and to curtail the reform process. Once again rural attacks increased. Members of the secret revolutionary society called the
"Invincibles", which was an offshoot of the I.R.B, assassinated two British colonial officials in a Dublin park ("Kelley" 21). In the 1885 Westminster elections, home rulers captured
85 of 103 Irish seats ("Kelley" 22). The British Liberal Party proposed a plan in 1886 for Ireland called Home Rule. This plan said that all of Ireland would have remained part of Great
Britain, but would have it's own parliament for domestic affairs. Protestants in Ulster feared that Ireland would have a catholic parliament. The plan was defeated in parliament by
British conservatives and by the liberals who were against there own party ("Northern" World Book 529).
During World War I, many Irish people had joined the British army to fight against Germany, but others had gone to join the Irish volunteers. This group was the military wing of the
political party Sinn Fein, which was established in 1904 ("Ireland" World Book 77). Most catholics were in favor of complete independence from Britain by the early 1900's. The British
parliament passed a home rule bill over Ulster opposition in 1914, but the outbreak of World War I (1914-1918) prevented the bill from going into effect ("Ireland" World Book 529,
530). On Easter morning, April 24th, 1916, Padraig Pearse led an uprising in Dublin. The revolt became known as the Easter Rising. Pearse's view was that Irishmen should not be
helping England fight a war that had nothing to do with Ireland, they instead should be fighting against England to gain independence. About 1,300 rebels were killed during
England's military response to this revolt ("Kelley" 21, 32). Ireland was declared an independent country in 1919 when 73 Irish members of the British parliament met in Dublin.
Following this meeting guerrilla warfare came back to shape between the Irish Rebels and the British forces. So in 1920 the British parliament passed an act that separated Ireland
into two different countries and gave each some powers of self government. This act was known as the Act of Government. Ulster protestants accepted this act and the state of
Northern Ireland was formed from six counties in Ulster. Catholics from Southern Ireland rejected this act and demanded complete independence and a United Ireland ("Ireland"
World Book 530). In 1921 a treaty between leaders from Southern Ireland and England created the Irish Free State.
The Irish Republican Army (IRA) formed in 1919. The IRA is a secret military organization whose goal is to seek and unite the Independent Republic of Ireland with Northern Ireland,
which is part of Great Britain. The IRA was formed as part of a movement to gain Independence for Ireland. The IRA began guerilla warfare for Independence in 1919 also. Southern
Ireland leaders and Britain had signed a treaty in 1921, this treaty created the Irish Free State from 23 southern counties and 3 counties of Ulster ("Northern" World Book 530). This
treaty stated that Ireland would be a self-governing country owning allegiance to the British Crown. This brought about the Irish Free State. The treaty led an effect on the IRA, it split
the IRA into two groups, one led by Michael Collins, who accepted the treaty and became part of the army of the Irish Free State. The other group led by Eamon De Valera, rejected
the treaty because it did not give complete independence from Britain and union with Northern Ireland ("Ireland" World Book 433). The division of Ireland was later opposed by the
Irish Free State. So in 1921, armed groups crossed into Northern Ireland and attacked British government installations. Many frequent attacks were carried out by the IRA during the
1920's, during World War II (1939-1945) and between 1956-1962. Breaking out in 1922 was a civil war, the irregulars were defeated, in 1923. The irregulars were known as Eamon
De Valera's group who broke away from Michael Collin's group after the Anglo-Irish Treaty was agreed to. Although the irregulars were defeated they did not give up, they continued
as an under-ground organization.
The Irish free state was declared independent from England in 1949, this was a major accomplishment of the IRA, but they had still to free Northern Ireland. From 1956-1962 the
Irish Republican Army had continually raided British checkpoints in Northern Ireland trying to reunite Ireland and Northern Ireland and also trying to embarrass the Irish government
("Ireland" World Book 433).
Re-Occupation by the British Troops: 1969
Catholics in Northern Ireland have long complained that protestants violated their civil rights and discriminated against them in the job markets, housing, and other areas. In 1967,
the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association was established to work for equal rights for all Irishmen ("Northern" World Book 530). A march for the civil rights association took place
in Derry on the 5th of october, 1969 to demonstrate it's power and to demand reforms. Bloody riots broke out when the government attempted to stop the march. Following the riots,
the Northern Ireland prime minster was persuaded to establish a number of reforms. More riots broke out in Belfast and other towns such as Newry. British troops were sent to
Northern Ireland as a result of these riots. The troops remained in Northern Ireland but could not stop the riots from breaking out during the 1970's. Due to the IRA and other military
groups carrying out bombings and other dangerous operations the British police were rearmed. In 1972 the violence led to Britain taking over the Direct Rule of Northern Ireland.
Efforts to find a system that would be acceptable to both protestants and catholics have continued since the 1970's, but have not been successful ("Northern" World Book 530).
Many groups had been formed throughout the number of years of conflict in Northern Ireland, the different groups usually consisted of all catholics, all protestants or in some cases
groups were mixed, but not very often was this the case. One group was known as the Apprentice Boys, a militant protestant group that barred the Derry gates to approaching
catholic armies of catholic King James in 1689 ("Kelley" IX). As a result of the attacks on the British police force, a group called the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) was formed and
were given heavy arms. An all protestant volunteer force called the Ulster Special Constabulary assisted the police in their operations ("Northern" World Book 530). The Special Air
Services (SAS), was an undercover unit of the British army that has fought in almost all of Britain's colonial wars since WWII. This group has also been active in Northern Ireland
since 1975 ("Kelley" XIII). The Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) was a branch of the British army which operates a locally rasied militia in Northern Ireland. this group was all
protestant and consisted of both full time and part time members. The Ulster Defence Association (UDA) was also an all protestant group which has run electoral campaigns in
support of an independent six county Ulster as part of an effort to moderate it's image ("Kelley" XIII).
There are six men who are leaders of the UDA, and they are referred to as the brigadiers. Each brigadier controls areas that mark rough boundaries of the original loyalist
organizations that came together to form the UDA in 1971 ("Cusack" 19). The Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) was originally the armed organization founded by Edward Carson who
opposed home rule and then to defend partition. A group that took this name had emerged in the mid 1960's to kill catholics at random. This became a full-fledged loyalist death
squad in the 1972-1973 time frame ("Kelley" XIV). The groups that were just previously mentioned were some of the protestant groups, now from the other side we also had catholic
organizations. The Fenian Brotherhood was a Revolutionary Republican group that lauched a rising in 1867. It was more or less the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB), which
survived underground and re-emerged in the 20th century as a group plotting the Easter Rising ("Kelley" X). Sinn Fein was a political group founded in 1905 by Arthur Griffith. It was
not quite functional at the time of the Easter Rising in 1916 ("Kelley" XIII). Oglaigh na hEIREANN was the underground guerrilla movement that has fought for a 32 county Irish
Republic since 1919. This group is also known as the IRA. It is the armed wing of Sinn Fein. Cumman na mBAN is the female branch of the IRA, this group carried out basically the
same operations as the Official IRA did ("Kelley" X). Fianna Fail was the dominant political party located in the South of Ireland from 1932 until at least 1973, this group formed by
Eamon De Valera after a split with Sinn Fein/IRA in 1926 ("Kelley" X).
During the time of 1969-75 a new force came about called the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA), this group was mainly the military wing of the Irish Republican Socialist Party,
(IRSP). This is officially a break away group from the political party Sinn Fein ("Chartres" 81). In Ireland it was getting difficult for the Irish people to remain absorbed in it's own
unresolved problems. Both Unionists (UVF) and home rulers had been trained and armed to fight a war ("Kelley" 29). Edward Carson, a protestant lawyer from Dublin was a leader
of the Ulster Volunteer Force. He really could do nothing except encourage his followers to sacrifice themselves on Britain's behalf ("Kelley" 30). During the winter of 1969-1970
Republicans felt that something must be done about the situation in which British soldiers were being welcomed into catholic communities in Northern Ireland.
Republicans were really angry when they heard that buns and tea were given to British soldiers on the door steps of protestant homes. The Provisional IRA carried out a
propaganda campaign (see Figure 2). They did not enjoy what had been standing in their way for quite some time now, which were the lethal weapons of the British army. There
were about 20,000 British soldiers in the province, which was enough to provide human errors being carried out. These human errors consisted of the kicking down of doors of
innocent catholic familes, beating them in the streets and harrassing people.
By the early 1970's the IRA had won it's propaganda battle and having been too late the British army tried to react to it, sometimes in quite the wrong way. On august 21st of 1970,
a new and most important political organization was formed.
This organization was known as the Social Democratic and Labor Party (SDLP). The supporters of the old nationalist party were the supporters of this new party ("Chartres" 33). The
first serious gun fights occurred in June 1970 in Belfast, Northern Ireland. They were identified as IRA units and some militant armed protestants. In the late summer of 1970's both
British army and police patrols came under fire from crude weapons known as nail bombs ("Chartres" 34). "The Provisional IRA showed it's teeth with 29 explosions, mainly directed
against such targets like police stations, prison gates, post offices and British owned airline offices." ("Chartres" 34). The years of 1970, 1971, and 1972 were years in which the
British regular army, the RUC and to an increasing extent the UDR family became locked into a battle with the IRA ("Chartres" 32). The consolidation of violence can also be labelled
a period of time in which the Irish Republican Movement struck hardest (see Figure 3). The Provisional IRA, had recruited too many people who actually enjoyed killing, wounding
and torturing British people. In march 1972, Britain suspended the Northern Ireland government and established direct rule. Britain also appointed secretary of state to take over the
executive power. Direct rule ended in january 1st, 1974 when a new government made up of 78 members called the Northern Ireland assembly and a 15 member executive council
took control ("Northern" World Book 526). The year of 1972 opened up with the horrific episode of "Bloody Sunday", which took place in Derry, Northern Ireland. On this date 13
civilians were shot dead by British troops, as suspected terrorists, even though there was no proof of their guilt of innocence.
Following Bloody Sunday the cities that were divided, Derry and Belfast, became even more divided. The battle lines between the protestants and the catholics became even more
visible. Bloody Sunday was a horrible episode but in Northern Ireland it was not enough because next came Bloody Friday, this was the same year as Bloody Sunday. This
consisted of 22 bombs being exploded. Nine people were killed and nearly 150 were injured ("Chartres" 35). The five year period from 1973-1978 was very violent. It
was a period in which many political solutions were sought, but none were found ("Chartres" 61). It was also a period in which many people lost their lives. From 1978 up to 1986
may be recognized as one in which acceptable levels of violence was at least achieved, and accepted. The British regular army was able to reduce it's force levels, making more use
of semi-permanently based units which are on two and a half year terms accompanied by families ("Chartres" 81).
In 1982 Britain adopted the Northern Ireland bill trying to reinstate local control but it was dissolved again in 1986 because of disagreements between protestants and catholics
("Northern" World Book 526). Catholics and protestants are now getting to the point where everyone is fed up with the violence going on in their communities and constant presence
and interference of the british troops..
Question: Where does Northern Ireland go from here ?
So the citizens of both catholic and protestant communities are looking for ways toward a compromise ("Stacks" 51). Evidence of the IRA's change of attitude from armed combat to
negotiation is that Sinn Fein has been going to pubs to explain to citizens the need for working out some sort of peace agreement ("Stacks" 50).
The two Irish nationalists, Gerry Adams and John Hume believe that Ireland should be a state on it's own but differ bitterly over whether violence is a legitimate way of making the
country whole. The talks involve questions about what would happen if the IRA were to re-announce attacks, that they could find a way for the future of Ireland that nationalists,
unionists, and the British and Irish governments might accept ("Kee" 18). Reinforced history over the past 25 years demonstrates that as far as the protestant
unionists of Ulster are concerned, a United Republican Ireland can never be accepted ("Kee" 18).
England and the Republic of Ireland have both renounced claims to Ulster in order that the citizens of Ulster can create some form of self-government ("Stacks" 50). England
wants to resolve the conflict in Northern Ireland because of the excessive cost is has to give out each year. The British government estmates that it spends 4.5 billion a year for the
military and economic aid to Northern Ireland. Public support for the IRA has declined both in Ireland and the United States because of the disgust of the senseless killings. The US
government estimates that money coming from the United States to support the IRA activities have dropped to about 200,000 a year from millions a few tears ago ("Stacks" 50). The
people who have committed their lives to violence may not be ready to accept a compromise which could have an effect on the negotiations ("Stacks" 51).
The most hopeful event in Ireland for the past 25 years has been the recent talks between the Irish Nationalists who despise IRA violence and the other Nationalists who support it
("Kee" 18). The militant loyalism in Northern Ireland had grown in a response to what is being seen as a major threat to the union: the possibility of a new Anglo-Irish agreement that,
protestant loyalists believe, would undermine the position of Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom or dispose of it altogether ("Cusack" 19).
Suggestions
The conflict in Northern Ireland had many bad times since everything started in the 1100's. It has taken the leaders of both the Irish side and the British side until today to understand
that violence is not the way to accomplish peace in Northern Ireland. Now that time has passed and leaders are finally talking peace, they should be given the support of the country
so that people in Northern Ireland can obtain peace and continue with their lives. There are ways to accomplish peace:
1. Eliminate the violence
2. Conduct peace talks
3. Accept the resolutions made by arbitrators
Conclusions
In Northern Ireland the conflict has been looked upon as the "never ending war". It is so difficult to understand war and also difficult to understand that no one could talk about this
war fluently unless they were there and had experienced some of the events thats took place in the Irish peoples everyday life. Outlooks for the future have never been brighter and
have been looked upon, but decisions have not been made. Peace in Northern Ireland would allow the people in it's communities to settle down and forget
about all the violence that happened in the past and continue with their lives without war.
That concludes the main part of the paper. I hope you enjoyed it and most importantly learned something about the Conflict in Ireland. This paper was written from a neutral position,
I tried not to let my personal beliefs affect how I wrote and I tried to see it from both sides of the fence.
Thanks for taking the time to read it. Your feed back on this is greatly appreciated, please click on the link below and email me your comments.
EMAIL COMMENTS
To this very day Northern Ireland remains part of Great Britain, and the Republic of Ireland remains free of British Rule.
Works Cited
Chartres, John, Bert Henshaw, and Michael Dewar. Northern Ireland Scrapbook.
London: Arms and Armour Press, 1986.
Cusack, Jim. "Protestant Militants Re-Arm." Irish Times, Dublin, reprinted in World
Press Review, January 1994, page 19.
"Ireland." World Book Encyclopedia. Volume 10. World Book Inc. 1990. pp 426, 433.
Kee, Robert. "An Independent But Irish North." The Times, London, reprinted in World Press Review, Janurary 1994, pp 18-19.
Keith, Jeffrery. "War In Peace."" Volume 11. Marshall Cavendish. 1987. pp 1615, 2050.
Kelley, Kevin. The Longest War, Northern Ireland and the IRA. Westport, CT:
Lawrence Hill & Co. 1982.
"Northern Ireland. "The World Book Encyclopedia." Volume 14. World Book Inc. 1993. pp 525-526, 529-530.
Stacks, John. F. "Hope amid the Rubble." Time. September, 1994.
